Methods for identifying drug targets based on genomic sequence data

ABSTRACT

This invention provides a computational approach to identifying potential antibacterial drug targets based on a genome sequence and its annotation. Starting from a fully sequenced genome, open reading frame assignments are made which determine the metabolic genotype for the organism. The metabolic genotype, and more specifically its stoichiometric matrix, are analyzed using flux balance analysis to assess the effects of genetic deletions on the fitness of the organism and its ability to produce essential biomolecules required for growth.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application in a continuation of application Ser. No. 09/243,022, filed Feb. 2, 1999.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Field of the Invention

This invention relates to methods for identifying drug targets based on genomic sequence data. More specifically, this invention relates to systems and methods for determining suitable molecular targets for the directed development of antimicrobial agents.

Description of the Related Art

Infectious disease is on a rapid rise and threatens to regain its status as a major health problem. Prior to the discovery of antibiotics in the 1930s, infectious disease was a major cause of death. Further discoveries, development, and mass production of antibiotics throughout the 1940s and 1950s dramatically reduced deaths from microbial infections to a level where they effectively no longer represented a major threat in developed countries.

Over the years antibiotics have been liberally prescribed and the strong selection pressure that this represents has led to the emergence of antibiotic resistant strains of many serious human pathogens. In some cases selected antibiotics, such as vancomycin, literally represent the last line of defense against certain pathogenic bacteria such as Staphylococcus. The possibility for staphylococci to acquire vancomycin resistance through exchange of genetic material with enterococci, which are commonly resistant to vancomycin, is a serious issue of concern to health care specialists. The pharmaceutical industry continues its search for new antimicrobial compounds, which is a lengthy and tedious, but very important process. The rate of development and introduction of new antibiotics appears to no longer be able to keep up with the evolution of new antibiotic resistant organisms. The rapid emergence of antibiotic resistant organisms threatens to lead to a serious widespread health care concern.

The basis of antimicrobial chemotherapy is to selectively kill the microbe with minimal, and ideally no, harm to normal human cells and tissues. Therefore, ideal targets for antibacterial action are biochemical processes that are unique to bacteria, or those that are sufficiently different from the corresponding mammalian processes to allow acceptable discrimination between the two. For effective antibiotic action it is clear that a vital target must exist in the bacterial cell and that the antibiotic be delivered to the target in an active form. Therefore resistance to an antibiotic can arise from: (i) chemical destruction or inactivation of the antibiotic; (ii) alteration of the target site to reduce or eliminate effective antibiotic binding; (iii) blocking antibiotic entry into the cell, or rapid removal from the cell after entry; and (iv) replacing the metabolic step inhibited by the antibiotic.

Thus, it is time to fundamentally re-examine the philosophy of microbial killing strategies and develop new paradigms. One such paradigm is a holistic view of cellular metabolism. The identification of “sensitive” metabolic steps in attaining the necessary metabolic flux distributions to support growth and survival that can be attacked to weaken or destroy a microbe, need not be localized to a single biochemical reaction or cellular process. Rather, different cellular targets that need not be intimately related in the metabolic topology could be chosen based on the concerted effect the loss of each of these functions would have on metabolism.

A similar strategy with viral infections has recently proved successful. It has been shown that “cocktails” of different drugs that target different biochemical processes provide enhanced success in fighting against HIV infection. Such a paradigm shift is possible only if the necessary biological information as well as appropriate methods of rational analysis are available. Recent advances in the field of genomics and bioinformatics, in addition to mathematical modeling, offer the possibility to realize this approach.

At present, the field of microbial genetics is entering a new era where the genomes of several microorganisms are being completely sequenced. It is expected that in a decade, or so, the nucleotide sequences of the genomes of all the major human pathogens will be completely determined. The sequencing of the genomes of pathogens such as Haemophilus influenzae has allowed researchers to compare the homology of proteins encoded by the open reading frames (ORFs) with those of Escherichia coli, resulting in valuable insight into the H. influenzae metabolic features. Similar analyses, such as those performed with H. influenzae, will provide details of metabolism spanning the hierarchy of metabolic regulation from bacterial genomes to phenotypes.

These developments provide exciting new opportunities to carry out conceptual experiments in silico to analyze different aspects of microbial metabolism and its regulation. Further, the synthesis of whole-cell models is made possible. Such models can account for each and every single metabolic reaction and thus enable the analysis of their role in overall cell function. To implement such analysis, however, a mathematical modeling and simulation framework is needed which can incorporate the extensive metabolic detail but still retain computational tractability. Fortunately, rigorous and tractable mathematical methods have been developed for the required systems analysis of metabolism.

A mathematical approach that is well suited to account for genomic detail and avoid reliance on kinetic complexity has been developed based on well-known stoichiometry of metabolic reactions. This approach is based on metabolic flux balancing in a metabolic steady state. The history of flux balance models for metabolic analyses is relatively short. It has been applied to metabolic networks, and the study of adipocyte metabolism. Acetate secretion from E. coli under ATP maximization conditions and ethanol secretion by yeast have also been investigated using this approach.

The complete sequencing of a bacterial genome and ORF assignment provides the information needed to determine the relevant metabolic reactions that constitute metabolism in a particular organism. Thus a flux-balance model can be formulated and several metabolic analyses can be performed to extract metabolic characteristics for a particular organism. The flux balance approach can be easily applied to systematically simulate the effect of single, as well as multiple, gene deletions. This analysis will provide a list of sensitive enzymes that could be potential antimicrobial targets.

The need to consider a new paradigm for dealing with the emerging problem of antibiotic resistant pathogens is a problem of vital importance. The route towards the design of new antimicrobial agents must proceed along directions that are different from those of the past. The rapid growth in bioinformatics has provided a wealth of biochemical and genetic information that can be used to synthesize complete representations of cellular metabolism. These models can be analyzed with relative computational ease through flux-balance models and visual computing techniques. The ability to analyze the global metabolic network and understand the robustness and sensitivity of its regulation under various growth conditions offers promise in developing novel methods of antimicrobial chemotherapy.

In one example, Pramanik et al. described a stoichiometric model of E. coli metabolism using flux-balance modeling techniques (Stoichiometric Model of Escherichia coli Metabolism: Incorporation of Growth-Rate Dependent Biomass Composition and Mechanistic Energy Requirements, Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Vol. 56, No. 4, Nov. 20, 1997). However, the analytical methods described by Pramanik, et al. can only be used for situations in which biochemical knowledge exists for the reactions occurring within an organism. Pramanik, et al. produced a metabolic model of metabolism for E. coli based on biochemical information rather than genomic data since the metabolic genes and related reactions for E. coli had already been well studied and characterized. Thus, this method is inapplicable to determining a metabolic model for organisms for which little or no biochemical information on metabolic enzymes and genes is known. It can be envisioned that in the future the only information we may have regarding an emerging pathogen is its genomic sequence. What is needed in the art is a system and method for determining and analyzing the entire metabolic network of organisms whose metabolic reactions have not yet been determined from biochemical assays. The present invention provides such a system.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to constructing metabolic genotypes and genome specific stoichiometric matrices from genome annotation data. The functions of the metabolic genes in the target organism are determined by homology searches against databases of genes from similar organisms. Once a potential function is assigned to each metabolic gene of the target organism, the resulting data is analyzed. In one embodiment, each gene is subjected to a flux-balance analysis to assess the effects of genetic deletions on the ability of the target organism to produce essential biomolecules necessary for its growth. Thus, the invention provides a high-throughput computational method to screen for genetic deletions which adversely affect the growth capabilities of fully sequenced organisms.

Embodiments of this invention also provide a computational, as opposed to an experimental, method for the rapid screening of genes and their gene products as potential drug targets to inhibit an organism's growth. This invention utilizes the genome sequence, the annotation data, and the biomass requirements of an organism to construct genomically complete metabolic genotypes and genome-specific stoichiometric matrices. These stoichiometric matrices are analyzed using a flux-balance analysis. This invention describes how to assess the affects of genetic deletions on the fitness and productive capabilities of an organism under given environmental and genetic conditions.

Construction of a genome-specific stoichiometric matrix from genomic annotation data is illustrated along with applying flux-balance analysis to study the properties of the stoichiometric matrix, and hence the metabolic genotype of the organism. By limiting the constraints on various fluxes and altering the environmental inputs to the metabolic network, genetic deletions may be analyzed for their affects on growth. This invention is embodied in a software application that can be used to create the stoichiometric matrix for a fully sequenced and annotated genome. Additionally, the software application can be used to further analyze and manipulate the network so as to predict the ability of an organism to produce biomolecules necessary for growth, thus, essentially simulating a genetic deletion.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a flow diagram illustrating one procedure for creating metabolic genotypes from genomic sequence data for any organism.

FIG. 2 is a flow diagram illustrating one procedure for producing in silico microbial strains from the metabolic genotypes created by the method of FIG. 1, along with additional biochemical and microbiological data.

FIG. 3 is a graph illustrating a prediction of genome scale shifts in transcription. The graph shows the different phases of the metabolic response to varying oxygen availability, starting from completely aerobic to completely anaerobic in E. coli. The predicted changes in expression pattern between phases II and V are indicated.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to systems and methods for utilizing genome annotation data to construct a stoichiometric matrix representing most of all of the metabolic reactions that occur within an organism. Using these systems and methods, the properties of this matrix can be studied under conditions simulating genetic deletions in order to predict the affect of a particular gene on the fitness of the organism. Moreover, genes that are vital to the growth of an organism can be found by selectively removing various genes from the stoichiometric matrix and thereafter analyzing whether an organism with this genetic makeup could survive. Analysis of these lethal genetic mutations is useful for identifying potential genetic targets for anti-microbial drugs.

It should be noted that the systems and methods described herein can be implemented on any conventional host computer system, such as those based on Intel® microprocessors and running Microsoft Windows operating systems. Other systems, such as those using the UNIX or LINUX operating system and based on IBM®, DEC® or Motorola® microprocessors are also contemplated. The systems and methods described herein can also be implemented to run on client-server systems and wide-area networks, such as the Internet.

Software to implement the system can be written in any well-known computer language, such as Java, C, C++, Visual Basic, FORTRAN or COBOL and compiled using any well-known compatible compiler.

The software of the invention normally runs from instructions stored in a memory on the host computer system. Such a memory can be a hard disk, Random Access Memory, Read Only Memory and Flash Memory. Other types of memories are also contemplated to function within the scope of the invention.

A process 10 for producing metabolic genotypes from an organism is shown in FIG. 1. Beginning at a start state 12, the process 10 then moves to a state 14 to obtain the genomic DNA sequence of an organism. The nucleotide sequence of the genomic DNA can be rapidly determined for an organism with a genome size on the order of a few million base pairs. One method for obtaining the nucleotide sequences in a genome is through commercial gene databases. Many gene sequences are available on-line through a number of sites (see, for example, www.tigr.org) and can easily be downloaded from the Internet. Currently, there are 16 microbial genomes that have been fully sequenced and are publicly available, with countless others held in proprietary databases. It is expected that a number of other organisms, including pathogenic organisms will be found in nature for which little experimental information, except for its genome sequence, will be available.

Once the nucleotide sequence of the entire genomic DNA in the target organism has been obtained at state 14, the coding regions, also known as open reading frames, are determined at a state 16. Using existing computer algorithms, the location of open reading frames that encode genes from within the genome can be determined. For example, to identify the proper location, strand, and reading frame of an open reading frame one can perform a gene search by signal (promoters, ribosomal binding sites, etc.) or by content (positional base frequencies, codon preference). Computer programs for determining open reading frames are available, for example, by the University of Wisconsin Genetics Computer Group and the National Center for Biotechnology Information.

After the location of the open reading frames have been determined at state 16, the process 10 moves to state 18 to assign a function to the protein encoded by the open reading frame. The discovery that an open reading frame or gene has sequence homology to a gene coding for a protein of known function, or family of proteins of known function, can provide the first clues about the gene and it's related protein's function. After the locations of the open reading frames have been determined in the genomic DNA from the target organism, well-established algorithms (i.e. the Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) and the FAST family of programs can be used to determine the extent of similarity between a given sequence and gene/protein sequences deposited in worldwide genetic databases. If a coding region from a gene in the target organism is homologous to a gene within one of the sequence databases, the open reading frame is assigned a function similar to the homologously matched gene. Thus, the functions of nearly the entire gene complement or genotype of an organism can be determined so long as homologous genes have already been discovered.

All of the genes involved in metabolic reactions and functions in a cell comprise only a subset of the genotype. This subset of genes is referred to as the metabolic genotype of a particular organism. Thus, the metabolic genotype of an organism includes most or all of the genes involved in the organism's metabolism. The gene products produced from the set of metabolic genes in the metabolic genotype carry out all or most of the enzymatic reactions and transport reactions known to occur within the target organism as determined from the genomic sequence.

To begin the selection of this subset of genes, one can simply search through the list of functional gene assignments from state 18 to find genes involved in cellular metabolism. This would include genes involved in central metabolism, amino acid metabolism, nucleotide metabolism, fatty acid and lipid metabolism, carbohydrate assimilation, vitamin and cofactor biosynthesis, energy and redox generation, etc. This subset is generated at a state 20. The process 10 of determining metabolic genotype of the target organism from genomic data then terminates at an end stage 22.

Referring now to FIG. 2, the process 50 of producing a computer model of an organism. This process is also known as producing in silico microbial strains. The process 50 begins at a start state 52 (same as end state 22 of process 10) and then moves to a state 54 wherein biochemical information is gathered for the reactions performed by each metabolic gene product for each of the genes in the metabolic genotype determined from process 10.

For each gene in the metabolic genotype, the substrates and products, as well as the stoichiometry of any and all reactions performed by the gene product of each gene can be determined by reference to the biochemical literature. This includes information regarding the irreversible or reversible nature of the reactions. The stoichiometry of each reaction provides the molecular ratios in which reactants are converted into products.

Potentially, there may still remain a few reactions in cellular metabolism which are known to occur from in vitro assays and experimental data. These would include well characterized reactions for which a gene or protein has yet to be identified, or was unidentified from the genome sequencing and functional assignment of state 14 and 18. This would also include the transport of metabolites into or out of the cell by uncharacterized genes related to transport. Thus one reason for the missing gene information may be due to a lack of characterization of the actual gene that performs a known biochemical conversion. Therefore upon careful review of existing biochemical literature and available experimental data, additional metabolic reactions can be added to the list of metabolic reactions determined from the metabolic genotype from state 54 at a state 56. This would include information regarding the substrates, products, reversibility/irreversibility, and stoichiometry of the reactions.

All of the information obtained at states 54 and 56 regarding reactions and their stoichiometry can be represented in a matrix format typically referred to as a stoichiometric matrix. Each column in the matrix corresponds to a given reaction or flux, and each row corresponds to the different metabolites involved in the given reaction/flux. Reversible reactions may either be represented as one reaction that operates in both the forward and reverse direction or be decomposed into one forward reaction and one backward reaction in which case all fluxes can only take on positive values. Thus, a given position in the matrix describes the stoichiometric participation of a metabolite (listed in the given row) in a particular flux of interest (listed in the given column). Together all of the columns of the genome specific stoichiometric matrix represent all of the chemical conversions and cellular transport processes that are determined to be present in the organism. This includes all internal fluxes and so called exchange fluxes operating within the metabolic network. Thus, the process 50 moves to a state 58 in order to formulate all of the cellular reactions together in a genome specific stoichiometric matrix. The resulting genome specific stoichiometric matrix is a fundamental representation of a genomically and biochemically defined genotype.

After the genome specific stoichiometric matrix is defined at state 58, the metabolic demands placed on the organism are calculated. The metabolic demands can be readily determined from the dry weight composition of the cell. In the case of well-studied organisms such as Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis, the dry weight composition is available in the published literature. However, in some cases it will be necessary to experimentally determine the dry weight composition of the cell for the organism in question. This can be accomplished with varying degrees of accuracy. The first attempt would measure the RNA, DNA, protein, and lipid fractions of the cell. A more detailed analysis would also provide the specific fraction of nucleotides, amino acids, etc. The process 50 moves to state 60 for the determination of the biomass composition of the target organism.

The process 50 then moves to state 62 to perform several experiments that determine the uptake rates and maintenance requirements for the organism. Microbiological experiments can be carried out to determine the uptake rates for many of the metabolites that are transported into the cell. The uptake rate is determined by measuring the depletion of the substrate from the growth media. The measurement of the biomass at each point is also required, in order to determine the uptake rate per unit biomass. The maintenance requirements can be determined from a chemostat experiment. The glucose uptake rate is plotted versus the growth rate, and the y-intercept is interpreted as the non-growth associated maintenance requirements. The growth associated maintenance requirements are determined by fitting the model results to the experimentally determined points in the growth rate versus glucose uptake rate plot.

Next, the process 50 moves to a state 64 wherein information regarding the metabolic demands and uptake rates obtained at state 62 are combined with the genome specific stoichiometric matrix of step 8 together fully define the metabolic system using flux balance analysis (FBA). This is an approach well suited to account for genomic detail as it has been developed based on the well-known stoichiometry of metabolic reactions.

The time constants characterizing metabolic transients and/or metabolic reactions are typically very rapid, on the order of milli-seconds to seconds, compared to the time constants of cell growth on the order of hours to days. Thus, the transient mass balances can be simplified to only consider the steady state behavior. Eliminating the time derivatives obtained from dynamic mass balances around every metabolite in the metabolic system, yields the system of linear equations represented in matrix notation,

S·v=0  Equation 1

where S refers to the stoichiometric matrix of the system, and v is the flux vector. This equation simply states that over long times, the formation fluxes of a metabolite must be balanced by the degradation fluxes. Otherwise, significant amounts of the metabolite will accumulate inside the metabolic network. Applying equation 1 to our system we let S now represent the genome specific stoichiometric matrix

To determine the metabolic capabilities of a defined metabolic genotype Equation 1 is solved for the metabolic fluxes and the internal metabolic reactions, v, while imposing constraints on the activity of these fluxes. Typically the number of metabolic fluxes is greater than the number of mass balances (i.e., m>n) resulting in a plurality of feasible flux distributions that satisfy Equation 1 and any constraints placed on the fluxes of the system. This range of solutions is indicative of the flexibility in the flux distributions that can be achieved with a given set of metabolic reactions. The solutions to Equation 1 lie in a restricted region. This subspace defines the capabilities of the metabolic genotype of a given organism, since the allowable solutions that satisfy Equation 1 and any constraints placed on the fluxes of the system define all the metabolic flux distributions that can be achieved with a particular set of metabolic genes.

The particular utilization of the metabolic genotype can be defined as the metabolic phenotype that is expressed under those particular conditions. Objectives for metabolic function can be chosen to explore the ‘best’ use of the metabolic network within a given metabolic genotype. The solution to equation 1 can be formulated as a linear programming problem, in which the flux distribution that minimizes a particular objective if found. Mathematically, this optimization can be stated as;

Minimize Z  Equation 2

where Z=Σc _(i) ·v _(i) =

c·v

  Equation 3

where Z is the objective which is represented as a linear combination of metabolic fluxes v_(i). The optimization can also be stated as the equivalent maximization problem; i.e. by changing the sign on Z.

This general representation of Z enables the formulation of a number of diverse objectives. These objectives can be design objectives for a strain, exploitation of the metabolic capabilities of a genotype, or physiologically meaningful objective functions, such as maximum cellular growth. For this application, growth is to be defined in terms of biosynthetic requirements based on literature values of biomass composition or experimentally determined values such as those obtained from state 60. Thus, we can define biomass generation as an additional reaction flux draining intermediate metabolites in the appropriate ratios and represented as an objective function Z. In addition to draining intermediate metabolites this reaction flux can be formed to utilize energy molecules such as ATP, NADH and NADPH so as to incorporate any maintenance requirement that must be met. This new reaction flux then becomes another constraint/balance equation that the system must satisfy as the objective function. It is analagous to adding an addition column to the stoichiometric matrix of Equation 1 to represent such a flux to describe the production demands placed on the metabolic system. Setting this new flux as the objective function and asking the system to maximize the value of this flux for a given set of constraints on all the other fluxes is then a method to simulate the growth of the organism.

Using linear programming, additional constraints can be placed on the value of any of the fluxes in the metabolic network.

βd _(j) ≦v _(j)≦α_(j)   Equation 4

These constraints could be representative of a maximum allowable flux through a given reaction, possibly resulting from a limited amount of an enzyme present in which case the value for α_(j) would take on a finite value. These constraints could also be used to include the knowledge of the minimum flux through a certain metabolic reaction in which case the value for β_(j) would take on a finite value. Additionally, if one chooses to leave certain reversible reactions or transport fluxes to operate in a forward and reverse manner the flux may remain unconstrained by setting β_(j) to negative infinity and α_(j) to positive infinity. If reactions proceed only in the forward reaction β_(j) is set to zero while α_(j) is set to positive infinity. As an example, to simulate the event of a genetic deletion the flux through all of the corresponding metabolic reactions related to the gene in question are reduced to zero by setting β_(j) and α_(j) to be zero in Equation 4. Based on the in vivo environment where the bacteria lives one can determine the metabolic resources available to the cell for biosynthesis of essentially molecules for biomass. Allowing the corresponding transport fluxes to be active provides the in silico bacteria with inputs and outputs for substrates and by-products produces by the metabolic network. Therefore as an example, if one wished to simulate the absence of a particular growth substrate one simply constrains the corresponding transport fluxes allowing the metabolite to enter the cell to be zero by allowing β_(j) and α_(j) to be zero in Equation 4. On the other hand if a substrate is only allowed to enter or exit the cell via transport mechanisms, the corresponding fluxes can be properly constrained to reflect this scenario.

Together the linear programming representation of the genome-specific stoichiometric matrix as in Equation 1 along with any general constraints placed on the fluxes in the system, and any of the possible objective functions completes the formulation of the in silico bacterial strain. The in silky strain can then be used to study theoretical metabolic capabilities by simulating any number of conditions and generating flux distributions through the use of linear programming. The process 50 of formulating the in silky strain and simulating its behavior using linear programming techniques terminates at an end state 66.

Thus, by adding or removing constraints on various fluxes in the network it is possible to (1) simulate a genetic deletion event and (2) simulate or accurately provide the network with the metabolic resources present in its in vivo environment. Using flux balance analysis it is possible to determine the affects of the removal or addition of particular genes and their associated reactions to the composition of the metabolic genotype on the range of possible metabolic phenotypes. If the removal/deletion does not allow the metabolic network to produce necessary precursors for growth, and the cell can not obtain these precursors from its environment, the deletion(s) has the potential as an antimicrobial drug target. Thus by adjusting the constraints and defining the objective function we can explore the capabilities of the metabolic genotype using linear programming to optimize the flux distribution through the metabolic network. This creates what we will refer to as an in silico bacterial strain capable of being studied and manipulated to analyze, interpret, and predict the genotype-phenotype relationship. It can be applied to assess the affects of incremental changes in the genotype or changing environmental conditions, and provide a tool for computer aided experimental design. It should be realized that other types of organisms can similarly be represented in silico and still be within the scope of the invention.

The construction of a genome specific stoichiometric matrix and in silico microbial strains can also be applied to the area of signal transduction. The components of signaling networks can be identified within a genome and used to construct a content matrix that can be further analyzed using various techniques to be determined in the future.

A. Example 1 E. coli Metabolic Genotype and in Silico Model

Using the methods disclosed in FIGS. 1 and 2, an in silico strain of Escherichia coli K-12 has been constructed and represents the first such strain of a bacteria largely generated from annotated sequence data and from biochemical information. The genetic sequence and open reading frame identifications and assignments are readily available from a number of on-line locations (ex: www.tigr.org). For this example we obtained the annotated sequence from the following website for the E. coli Genome Project at the University of Wisconsin (http://www.genetics.wisc.edu/). Details regarding the actual sequencing and annotation of the sequence can be found at that site. From the genome annotation data the subset of genes involved in cellular metabolism was determined as described above in FIG. 1, state 20, comprising the metabolic genotype of the particular strain of E. coli.

Through detailed analysis of the published biochemical literature on E. coli we determined (1) all of the reactions associated with the genes in the metabolic genotype and (2) any additional reactions known to occur from biochemical data which were not represented by the genes in the metabolic genotype. This provided all of the necessary information to construct the genome specific stoichiometric matrix for E. coli K-12.

Briefly, the E. coli K-12 bacterial metabolic genotype and more specifically the genome specific stoichiometric matrix contains 731 metabolic processes that influence 436 metabolites (dimensions of the genome specific stoichiometric matrix are 436×731). There are 80 reactions present in the genome specific stoichiometric matrix that do not have a genetic assignment in the annotated genome, but are known to be present from biochemical data. The genes contained within this metabolic genotype are shown in Table 1 along with the corresponding reactions they carry out.

Because E. coli is arguably the best studied organism, it was possible to determine the uptake rates and maintenance requirements (state 62 of FIG. 2) by reference to the published literature. This in silico strain accounts for the metabolic capabilities of E. coli. It includes membrane transport processes, the central catabolic pathways, utilization of alternative carbon sources and the biosynthetic pathways that generate all the components of the biomass. In the case of E. coli K-12, we can call upon the wealth of data on overall metabolic behavior and detailed biochemical information about the in vivo genotype to which we can compare the behavior of the in silico strain. One utility of FBA is the ability to learn about the physiology of the particular organism and explore its metabolic capabilities without any specific biochemical data. This ability is important considering possible future scenarios in which the only data that we may have for a newly discovered bacterium (perhaps pathogenic) could be its genome sequence.

B. Example 2 In Silico Deletion Analysis for E. coli to Find Antimicrobial Targets

Using the in silico strain constructed in Example 1, the effect of individual deletions of all the enzymes in central metabolism can be examined in silico. For the analysis to determine sensitive linkages in the metabolic network of E. coli, the objective function utilized is the maximization of the biomass yield. This is defined as a flux draining the necessary biosynthetic precursors in the appropriate ratios. This flux is defined as the biomass composition, which can be determined from the literature. See Neidhardt et. al., Escherichia coil and Salmonella: Cellular and Molecular Biology, Second Edition, ASM Press, Washington D.C., 1996. Thus, the objective function is the maximization of a single flux, this biosynthetic flux.

Constraints are placed on the network to account for the availability of substrates for the growth of E. co/i. In the initial deletion analysis, growth was simulated in an aerobic glucose minimal media culture. Therefore, the constraints are set to allow for the components included in the media to be taken up. The specific uptake rate can be included if the value is known, otherwise, an unlimited supply can be provided. The uptake rate of glucose and oxygen have been determined for E. coli (Neidhardt et. al., Escherichia coli and Salmonella: Cellular and Molecular Biology, Second Edition, ASM Press, Washington D.C., 1996. Therefore, these values are included in the analysis. The uptake rate for phosphate, sulfur, and nitrogen source is not precisely known, so constraints on the fluxes for the uptake of these important substrates is not included, and the metabolic network is allowed to take up any required amount of these substrates.

The results showed that a high degree of redundancy exists in central intermediary metabolism during growth in glucose minimal media, which is related to the interconnectivity of the metabolic reactions. Only a few metabolic functions were found to be essential such that their loss removes the capability of cellular growth on glucose. For growth on glucose, the essential gene products are involved in the 3-carbon stage of glycolysis, three reactions of the TCA cycle, and several points within the PPP. Deletions in the 6-carbon stage of glycolysis result in a reduced ability to support growth due to the diversion of additional flux through the PPP.

The results from the gene deletion study can be directly compared with growth data from mutants. The growth characteristics of a series of E. roll mutants on several different carbon sources were examined (80 cases were determined from the literature), and compared to the in silico deletion results (Table 2). The majority (73 of 80 cases or 91%) of the mutant experimental observations are consistent with the predictions of the in silico study. The results from the in silico gene deletion analysis are thus consistent with experimental observations.

C. Example 3 Prediction of Genome Scale Shifts in Gene Expression

Flux based analysis can be used to predict metabolic phenotypes under different growth conditions, such as substrate and oxygen availability. The relation between the flux value and the gene expression levels is non-linear, resulting in bifurcations and multiple steady states. However, FBA can give qualitative (on/off) information as well as the relative importance of gene products under a given condition. Based on the magnitude of the metabolic fluxes, qualitative assessment of gene expression can be inferred.

FIG. 3a shows the five phases of distinct metabolic behavior of E. coli in response to varying oxygen availability, going from completely anaerobic (phase I) to completely aerobic (phase V). FIGS. 3b and 3c display lists of the genes that are predicted to be induced or repressed upon the shift from aerobic growth (phase V) to nearly complete anaerobic growth (phase II). The numerical values shown in FIGS. 3b and 3c are the fold change in the magnitude of the fluxes calculated for each of the listed enzymes.

For this example, the objective of maximization of biomass yield is utilized (as described above). The constraints on the system are also set accordingly (as described above). However, in this example, a change in the availability of a key substrate is leading to changes in the metabolic behavior. The change in the parameter is reflected as a change in the uptake flux. Therefore, the maximal allowable oxygen uptake rate is changed to generate this data. The figure demonstrates how several fluxes in the metabolic network will change as the oxygen uptake flux is continuously decreased. Therefore, the constraints on the fluxes is identical to what is described in the previous section, however, the oxygen uptake rate is set to coincide with the point in the diagram.

Corresponding experimental data sets are now becoming available. Using high-density oligonucleotide arrays the expression levels of nearly every gene in Saccharomyces cerevisiae can now be analyzed under various growth conditions. From these studies it was shown that nearly 90% of all yeast mRNAs are present in growth on rich and minimal media, while a large number of mRNAs were shown to be differentially expressed under these two conditions. Another recent article shows how the metabolic and genetic control of gene expression can be studied on a genomic scale using DNA microarray technology (Exploring the Metabolic and Genetic Control of Gene Expression on a Genomic Scale, Science, Vol. 278, Oct. 24, 1997. The temporal changes in genetic expression profiles that occur during the diauxic shift in S. cerevisiae were observed for every known expressed sequence tag (EST) in this genome. As shown above, FBA can be used to qualitatively simulate shifts in metabolic genotype expression patterns due to alterations in growth environments. Thus, FBA can serve to complement current studies in metabolic gene expression, by providing a fundamental approach to analyze, interpret, and predict the data from such experiments.

D. Example 4 Design of Defined Media

An important economic consideration in large-scale bioprocesses is optimal medium formulation. FBA can be used to design such media. Following the approach defined above, a flux-balance model for the first completely sequenced free living organism, Haemophilus influenzae, has been generated. One application of this model is to predict a minimal defined media. It was found that H. influenzae can grow on the minimal defined medium as determined from the ORF assignments and predicted using FBA. Simulated bacterial growth was predicted using the following defined media: fructose, arginine, cysteine, glutamate, putrescine, spermidine, thiamin, NAD, tetrapyrrole, pantothenate, ammonia, phosphate. This predicted minimal medium was compared to the previously published defined media and was found to differ in only one compound, inosine. It is known that inosine is not required for growth, however it does serve to enhance growth. Again the in silico results obtained were consistent with published in vivo research. These results provide confidence in the use of this type of approach for the design of defined media for organisms in which there currently does not exist a defined media.

While particular embodiments of the invention have been described in detail, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that these embodiments are exemplary rather than limiting, and the true scope of the invention is defined by the claims that follow.

TABLE 1 The genes included in the E. coli metabolic genotype along with corresponding enzymes and reactions that comprise the genome specific stoichiometric matrix. The final column indicates the presence/absence of the gene (as the number of copies) in the E. coli genome. Thus the presence of a gene in the E. coli genome indicates that the gene is part of the metabolic genotype. Reactions/Genes not present in the genome are those gathered at state 56 in FIG. 2 and together with the reactions of the genes in the metabolic genotype form the columns of the genome specific stoichiometric matrix. E. coli Enzyme Gene Reaction Genome Glucokinase glk GLC + ATP -> G6P + ADP 1 Glucokinase glk bDGLC + ATP -> bDG6P + ADP 1 Phosphoglucose isomerase pgi G6P <-> F6P 1 Phosphoglucose isomerase pgi bDG6P <-> G6P 1 Phosphoglucose isomerase pgi bDG6P <-> F6P 1 Aldose 1-epimerase galM bDGLC <-> GLC 1 Glucose-1-phophatase agp G1P -> GLC + PI 1 Phosphofructokinase pfkA F6P + ATP -> FDP + ADP 1 Phosphofructokinase B pfkB F6P + ATP -> FDP + ADP 1 Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase fbp FDP -> F6P + PI 1 Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatate aldolase fba FDP <-> T3P1 + T3P2 2 Triosphosphate Isomerase tpiA T3P1 <-> T3P2 1 Methylglyoxal synthase mgsA T3P2 -> MTHGXL + PI 0 Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase-A gapA T3P1 + PI + NAD <-> NADH + 13PDG 1 complex Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase-C gapC1C2 T3P1 + PI + NAD <-> NADH + 13PDG 2 complex Phosphoglycerate kinase pgk 13PDG + ADP <-> 3PG + ATP 1 Phosphoglycerate mutase 1 gpmA 3PG <-> 2PG 1 Phosphoglycerate mutase 2 gpmB 3PG <-> 2PG 1 Enolase eno 2PG <-> PEP 1 Phosphoenolpyruvate synthase ppsA PYR + ATP -> PEP + AMP + PI 1 Pyruvate Kinase II pykA PEP + ADP -> PYR + ATP 1 Pyruvate Kinase I pykF PEP + ADP -> PYR + ATP 1 Pyruvate dehydrogenase lpdA, aceEF PYR + COA + NAD -> NADH + CO2 + ACCOA 3 Glucose-1-phosphate adenylytransferase glgC ATP + GIP -> ADPGLC + PPI 1 Glycogen synthase glgA ADPGLC -> ADP + GLYCOGEN 1 Glycogen phosphorylase glgP GLYCOGEN + PI -> GIP 1 Maltodextrin phosphorylase malP GLYCOGEN + PI -> GIP 1 Glucose 6-phosphate-1-dehydrogenase zwf G6P + NADP <-> D6PGL + NADPH 1 6-Phosphogluconolactonase pgl D6PGL -> D6PGC 0 6-Phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (decarboxylating) gnd D6PGC + NADP -> NADPH + CO2 + RL5P 1 Ribose-5-phosphate isomerase A rpiA RL5P <-> R5P 1 Ribase-5-phosphate isomerase B rpiB RL5P <-> R5P 1 Ribulose phosphate 3-epimerase rpe RL5P <-> X5P 1 Transketolase I tktA R5P + X5P <-> T3P1 + S7P 1 Transketolase II tktB R5P + X5P <-> T3P1 + S7P 1 Transketolase I tktA X5P + E4P <-> F6P + T3P1 1 Transketolase II tktB X5P + E4P <-> F6P + T3P1 1 Transaldolase B talB T3P1 + S7P <-> E4P + F6P 1 Phosphogluconate dehydratase edd D6PGC -> 2KD6PG 1 2-Keto-3-deoxy-6-phosphogluconate aldolase eda 2KD6PG -> T3P1 + PYR 1 Citrate synthase gltA ACCOA + OA -> COA + CIT 1 Aconitase A acnA CIT <-> ICIT 1 Aconitase B acnB CIT <-> ICIT 1 Isocitrate dehydrogenase icdA ICIT + NADP <-> CO2 + NADPH + AKG 1 2-Ketoglutarate dehyrogenase sucAB, lpdA AKG + NAD + COA -> CO2 + NADH + SUCCOA 3 Succinyl-CoA synthetase sucCD SUCCOA + ADP + PI <-> ATP + COA + SUCC 2 Succinate dehydrogenase sdhABCD SUCC + FAD -> FADH + FUM 4 Fumurate reductase frdABCD FUM + FADH -> SUCC + FAD 4 Fumarase A fumA FUM <-> MAL 1 Fumarase B fumB FUM <-> MAL 1 Fumarase C fumC FUM <-> MAL 1 Malate dehydrogenase mdh MAL + NAD <-> NADH + OA 1 D-Lactate dehydrogenase 1 dld PYR + NADH <-> NAD + LAC 1 D-Lactate dehydrogenase 2 ldhA PYR + NADH <-> NAD + LAC 1 Acetaldehyde dehydrogenase adhE ACCOA +2 NADH <-> ETH +2 NAD + COA 1 Pyruvate formate lyase 1 pflAB PYR + COA -> ACCOA + FOR 2 Pyruvate formate lyase 2 pflCD PYR + COA -> ACCOA + FOR 2 Formate hydrogen lyase fdhF, FOR -> CO2 5 hycBEFG Phosphotransacetylase pta ACCOA + PI <-> ACTP + COA 1 Acetate kinase A ackA ACTP + ADP <-> ATP + AC 1 GAR transformylase T purT ACTP + ADP <-> ATP + AC 1 Acetyl-CoA synthetase acs ATP + AC + COA -> AMP + PPI + ACCOA 1 Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase pckA OA + ATP -> PEP + CO2 + ADP 1 Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase ppc PEP + CO2 -> OA + PI 1 Malic enzyme (NADP) maeB MAL + NADP -> CO2 + NADPH + PYR 0 Malic enzyme (NAD) sfcA MAL + NAD -> CO2 + NADH + PYR 1 Isocitrate lyase aceA ICIT -> GLX + SUCC 1 Malate synthase A aceB ACCOA + GLX -> COA + MAL 1 Malate synthase G glcB ACCOA + GLX -> COA + MAL 1 Inorganic pyrophosphatase ppa PPI -> 2 PI 1 NADH dehydrogenase II ndh NADH + Q -> NAD + QH2 1 NADH dehydrogenase I nuoABEFGHIJ NADH + Q -> NAD + QH2 +3.5 HEXT 1 Formate dehydrogenase-N fdnGHI FOR + Q -> QH2 + CO2 +2 HEXT 3 Formate dehydrogenase-O fdoIHG FOR + Q -> QH2 + CO2 +2 HEXT 3 Formate dehydrogenase fdhF FOR + Q -> QH2 + CO2 +2 HEXT 1 Pyruvate oxidase poxB PYR + Q -> AC + CO2 + QH2 1 Glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (acrobic) glpD GL3P + Q -> T3P2 + QH2 1 Glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (anaerobic) glpABC GL3P + Q -> T3P2 + QH2 3 Cytochrome oxidase bo3 cyoABCD, cyc QH2 +.5 O2 -> Q +2.5 HEXT 6 Cytochrome oxidase bd cydABCD, app QH2 +.5 O2 -> Q +2 HEXT 6 Succinate dehydrogenase complex sdhABCD FADH + Q <-> FAD + QH2 4 Thioredoxin reductase trxB OTHIO + NADPH -> NADP + RTHIO 1 Pyridine nucleotide transhydrogenase pntAB NADPH + NAD -> NADP + NADH 2 Pyridine nucleotide transhydrogenase pntAB NADP + NADH +2 HEXT -> NADPH + NAD 2 Hydrogenase 1 hyaABC 2 Q+2 HEXT <-> 2 QH2 + H2 3 Hydrogenase 2 hybAC 2 Q+2 HEXT <-> 2 QH2 + H2 2 Hydrogenase 3 hycFGBE 2 Q+2 HEXT <-> 2 QH2 + H2 4 F0F1-ATPase atpABCDEFG ATP <-> ADP + PI +4 HEXT 9 Alpha-galactosidase (melibiase) melA MELI -> GLC + GLAC 1 Galactokinase galK GLAC + ATP -> GAL1P + ADP 1 Galactose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase galT GAL1P + UDPG <-> G1P + UDPGAL 1 UDP-glucose 4-epimerase galE UDPGAL <-> UDPG 1 UDP-glucose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase galU G1P + UTP <-> UDPG + PPI 1 Phosphoglucomutase pgm G1P <-> G6P 1 Periplasmic beta-glucosidase precursor bglX LCTS -> GLC + GLAC 1 Beta-galactosidase (LACTase) lacZ LCTS -> GLC + GLAC 1 trehalose-6-phosphate hydrolase treC TRE6P -> bDG6P + GLC 1 Beta-fructofuranosidase SUC6P -> G6P + FRU 0 1-Phosphofructokinase (Fructose 1-phosphate kinase) fruK F1P + ATP -> FDP + ADP 1 Xylose isomerase xylA FRU -> GLC 1 Phosphomannomutase cpsG MAN6P <-> MAN1P 1 Mannose-6-phosphate isomerase manA MAN1P <-> F6P 1 N-Acetylglucosamine-6-phosphate deacetylase nagA NAGP -> GA6P + AC 1 Glucosamine-6-phosphate deaminase nagB GA6P -> F6P + NH3 1 N-Acetylneuraminate lyase nanA SLA -> PYR + NAMAN 1 L-Fucose isomerase fucI FUC <-> FCL 1 L-Fuculokinase fucK FCL + ATP -> FCL1P + ADP 1 L-Fuculose phosphate aldolase fucA FCL1P <-> LACAL + T3P2 1 Lactaldehyde reductase fucO LACAL + NADH <-> 12PPD + NAD 1 Aldehyde dehydrogenase A aldA LACAL + NAD <-> LLAC + NADH 1 Aldehyde dehydrogenase B aldB LACAL + NAD <-> LLAC + NADH 1 Aldehyde dehydrogenase adhC LACAL + NAD <-> LLAC + NADH 1 Aldehyde dehydrogenase adhC GLAL + NADH <-> GL + NAD 1 Aldehyde dehydrogenase adhE LACAL + NAD -> LLAC + NADH 1 Aldehyde dehydrogenase aldH LACAL + NAD <-> LLAC + NADH 1 Aldehyde dehydrogenase aldH ACAL + NAD -> AC + NADH 1 Gluconokinase I gntV GLCN + ATP -> D6PGC + ADP 1 Gluconokinase II gntK GLCN + ATP -> D6PGC + ADP 1 L-Rhamnose isomerase rha4 RMN <-> RML 1 Rhamnulokinase rhaB RML + ATP -> RML1P + ADP 1 Rhamnulose-1-phosphate aldolase rhaD RML1P <-> LACAL + T3P2 1 L-Arabinose isomerase araA ARAB <-> RBL 1 Arabinose-5-phosphate isomerase RL5P <-> A5P 0 L-Ribulokinase araB RBL + ATP -> RL5P + ADP 1 L-Ribulose-phosphate 4-epimerase araD RL5P <-> X5P 1 Xylose isomerase xylA XYL <-> XUL 1 Xylulokinase xylB XUL + ATP -> X5P + ADP 1 Ribokinase rbsK RIB + ATP -> R5P + ADP 1 Mannitol-1-phosphate 5-dehydrogenase mtlD MNT6P + NAD <-> F6P + NADH 1 Glucitol-6-phosphate dehydrogenase srlD GLT6P + NAD <-> F6P + NADH 1 Galactitol-1-phosphate dehydrogenase gatD GLTL1P + NAD <-> TAG6P + NADH 1 Phosphofructokinase B pfkB TAG6P + ATP -> TAG16P + ADP 1 1-Phosphofructokinase fruK TAG6P + ATP -> TAG16P + ADP 1 Tagatose-6-phosphate kinase agaZ TAG6P + ATP -> TAG16P + ADP 1 Tagatose-bisphosphate aldolase 2 gatY TAG16P <-> T3P2 + T3P1 1 Tagatose-bisphosphate aldolase 1 agaY TAG16P <-> T3P2 + T3P1 1 Glycerol kinase glpK GL + ATP -> GL3P + ADP 1 Glycerol-3-phosphate-dehydrogenase-[NAD(P)+] gpsA GL3P + NADP <-> T3P2 + NADPH 1 Phosphopentomutase deoB DR1P <-> DR5P 1 Phosphopentomutase deoB R1P <-> R5P 1 Deoxyribose-phosphate aldolase deoC DR5P -> ACAL + T3P1 1 Asparate transaminase aspC OA + GLU <-> ASP + AKG 1 Asparagine synthetase (Glutamate dependent) asnB ASP + ATP + GLN -> GLU + ASN + AMP + PPI 1 Aspartate-ammonia ligase asnA ASP + ATP + NH3 -> ASN + AMP + PPI 1 Glutamate dehydrogenase gdhA AKG + NH3 + NADPH <-> GLU + NADP 1 Glutamate-ammonia ligase glnA GLU + NH3 + ATP -> GLN + ADP + PI 1 Glutamate synthase gltBD AKG + GLN + NADPH -> NADP + 2 GLU 2 Alanine transaminase alaB PYR + GLU <-> AKG + ALA 0 Valine-pyruvate aminotransferase avtA OIVAL + ALA -> PYR + VAL 1 Alanine racemase, biosynthetic alr ALA <-> DALA 1 Alanine racemase, catabolic dadX ALA -> DALA 1 N-Acetylglutamate synthase argA GLU + ACCOA -> COA + NAGLU 1 N-Acetylglutamate kinase argB NAGLU + ATP -> ADP + NAGLUYP 1 N-Acetylglutamate phosphate reductase argC NAGLUYP + NADPH <-> NADP + PI + NAGLUSAL 1 Acetylornithine transaminase argD NAGLUSAL + GLU <-> AKG + NAARON 1 Acetylornithine deacetylase argE NAARON -> AC + ORN 1 Carbamoyl phosphate synthetase carAB GLN +2 ATP + CO2 -> GLU + CAP +2 ADP + PI 2 Ornithine carbamoyl transferase 1 argF ORN + CAP <-> CITR + PI 2 Ornithine carbamoyl transferase 2 argI ORN + CAP <-> CITR + PI 1 Ornithine transaminase ygjGH ORN + AKG -> GLUGSAL + GLU 2 Argininosuccinate synthase argG CITR + ASP + ATP -> AMP + PPI + ARGSUCC 1 Argininosuccinate lyase argH ARGSUCC <-> FUM + ARG 1 Arginine decarboxylase, biosynthetic speA ARG -> CO2 + AGM 1 Arginine decarboxylase, degradative adi ARG -> CO2 + AGM 1 Agmatinase speB AGM -> UREA + PTRC 1 Ornithine decarboxylase, biosynthetic speC ORN -> PTRC + CO2 1 Ornithine decarboxylase, degradative speF ORN -> PTRC + CO2 1 Adenosylmethionine decarboxylase speD SAM <-> DSAM + CO2 1 Spermidine synthase speE PTRC + DSAM -> SPMD + 5MTA 1 Methylthioadenosine nucleosidase 5MTA -> AD + 5MTR 0 5-Methylthioribose kinase 5MTR + ATP -> 5MTRP + ADP 0 5-Methylthioribose-1-phosphate isomerase 5MTRP <-> 5MTR1P 0 E-1 (Enolase-phosphatase) 5MTR1P -> DKMPP 0 E-3 (Unknown) DKMPP -> FOR + KMB 0 Transamination (Unknown) KMB + GLN -> GLU + MET 0 γ-Glutamyl kinase proB GLU + ATP -> ADP + GLUP 1 Glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase proA GLUP + NADPH -> NADP + PI + GLUGSAL 1 N-Acetylornithine deacetylase argE NAGLUSAL -> GLUGSAL + AC 1 Pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase proC GLUGSAL + NADPH -> PRO + NADP 1 Threonine dehydratase, biosynthetic ilvA THR -> NH3 + OBUT 1 Threonine dehydratase, catabolic tdcB THR -> NH3 + OBUT 1 Acetohydroxybutanoate synthase I ilvBN OBUT + PYR -> ABUT + CO2 2 Acetohydroxybutanoate synthase II ilvG(12)M OBUT + PYR -> ABUT + CO2 3 Acetohydroxybutanoate synthase III ilvIH OBUT + PYR -> ABUT + CO2 2 Acetohydroxy Acid isomeroreductase ilvC ABUT + NADPH -> NADP + DHMVA 1 Dihydroxy acid dehydratase ilvD DHMVA -> OMVAL 1 Branched chain amino acid aminotransferase ilvE OMVAL + GLU <-> AKG + ILE 1 Acetolactate synthase I ilvBN 2 PYR -> CO2 + ACLAC 2 Acetolactate synthase II ilvG(12)M 2 PYR -> CO2 + ACLAC 3 Acetolactate synthase III ilvIH 2 PYR -> CO2 + ACLAC 2 Acetohydroxy acid isomeroreductase ilvC ACLAC + NADPH -> NADP + DHVAL 1 Dihydroxy acid dehydratase ilvD DHVAL -> OIVAL 1 Branched chain amino acid aminotransferase ilvE OIVAL + GLU -> AKG + VAL 1 Valine-pvruvate aminotransferase avtA OIVAL + ALA -> PYR + VAL 1 Isopropylmalate synthase leuA ACCOA +OIVAL -> COA + CBHCAP 1 Isopropylmalate isomerase leuCD CBHCAP <-> IPPMAL 2 3-Isopropylmalate dehydrogenase leuB IPPMAL + NAD -> NADH + OICAP + CO2 1 Branched chain amino acid aminotransferase ilvE OICAP + GLU -> AKG + LEU 1 Aromatic amino acid transaminase tyrB OICAP + GLU -> AKG + LEU 1 2-Dehydro-3-deoxyphosphoheptonate aldolase F aroF E4P + PEP -> PI + 3DDAH7P 1 2-Dehydro-3-deoxyphosphoheptonate aldolase G aroG E4P + PEP -> PI + 3DDAH7P 1 2-Dehydro-3-deoxyphosphoheptonate aldolase H aroH E4P + PEP -> PI + 3DDAH7P 1 3-Dehydroquinate synthase aroB 3DDAH7P -> DQT + PI 1 3-Dehydroquinate dehydratase aroD DQT <-> DHSK 1 Shikimate dehydrogenase aroE DHSK + NADPH <-> SME + NADP 1 Shikimate kinase I aroK SME + ATP -> ADP + SME5P 1 Shikimate kinase II aroL SME + ATP -> ADP + SME5P 1 3-Phosphoshikimate-1-carboxyvinyltransferase aroA SME5P + PEP <-> 3PSME + PI 1 Chorismate synthase aroC 3PSME -> PI + CHOR 1 Chorismate mutase 1 pheA CHOR -> PHEN 1 Prephenate dehydratase pheA PHEN -> CO2 + PHPYR 1 Aromatic amino acid transaminase tyrB PHPYR + GLU <-> AKG + PHE 1 Chorismate mutase 2 tyrA CHOR -> PHEN 1 Prephanate dehydrogenase tyrA PHEN + NAD -> HPHPYR + CO2 + NADH 1 Aromatic amino acid transaminase tyrB HPHPYR + GLU <-> AKG + TYR 1 Asparate transaminase aspC HPHPYR + GLU <-> AKG + TYR 1 Anthranilate synthase trpDE CHOR + GLN -> GLU + PYR + AN 2 Anthranilate synthase component II trpD AN + PRPP -> PPI + NPRAN 1 Phosphoribosyl anthranilate isomerase trpC NPRAN -> CPAD5P 1 Indoleglycerol phosphate synthase trpC CPAD5P -> CO2 + IGP 1 Tryptophan synthase trpAB IGP + SER -> T3P1 + TRP 2 Phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate synthase prsA R5P + ATP <-> PRPP + AMP 1 ATP phosphoribosyltransferase hisG PRPP + ATP -> PPI + PRBATP 1 Phosphoribosyl-ATP pyrophosphatase hisIE PRBATP -> PPI + PRBAMP 1 Phosphoribosyl-AMP cyclohydrolase hisIE PRBAMP -> PRFP 1 Phosphoribosylformimino-5-amino-1-phosphoribosyl- hisA PRFP -> PRLP 1 4-imidazole c Imidazoleglycerol phosphate synthase hisFH PRLP + GLN -> GLU + AICAR + DIMGP 2 Imidazoleglycerol phosphate dehydratase hisB DIMGP -> IMACP 1 L-Histidinol phosphate aminotransferase hisC IMACP + GLU -> AKG + HISOLP 1 Histidinol phosphatase hisB HISOLP -> PI + HISOL 1 Histidinol dehydrogenase hisD HISOL + 3 NAD -> HIS + 3 NADH 1 3-Phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase serA 3PG + NAD -> NADH + PHP 1 Phosphoserine transaminase serC PHP + GLU -> AKG + 3PSER 1 Phosphoserine phosphatase serB 3PSER -> PI + SER 1 Glycine hydroxymethyltransferase glyA THF + SER -> GLY + METTHF 1 Threonine dehydrogenase tdh THR + COA -> GLY + ACCOA 1 Amino ketobutyrate CoA ligase kbl THR + COA -> GLY + ACCOA 1 Sulfate adenylyltransferase cysDN SLF + ATP + GTP -> PPI + APS + GDP + PI 2 Adenylylsulfate kinase cysC APS + ATP -> ADP + PAPS 1 3′-Phospho-adenylylsulfate reductase cysH PAPS + RTHIO -> OTHIO + H2SO3 + PAP 1 Sulfite reductase cysIJ H2SO3 + 3 NADPH <-> H2S + 3 NADP 2 Serine transacetylase cysE SER + ACCOA <-> COA + ASER 1 O-Acetylserine (thiol)-lyase A cysK ASER + H2S -> AC + CYS 1 O-Acetylserine (thiol)-lyase B cysM ASER + H2S -> AC + CYS 1 3′-5′ Bisphosphate nucleotidase PAP -> AMP + PI 0 Aspartate kinase I thrA ASP + ATP <-> ADP + BASP 1 Aspartate kinase II metL ASP + ATP <-> ADP + BASP 1 Aspartate kinase III lysC ASP + ATP <-> ADP + BASP 1 Aspartate semialdehyde dehydrogenase asd BASP + NADPH <-> NADP + PI + ASPSA 1 Homoserine dehydrogenase I thrA ASPSA + NADPH <-> NADP + HSER 1 Homoserine dehydrogenase II metL ASPSA + NADPH <-> NADP + HSER 1 Homoserine kinase thrB HSER + ATP -> ADP + PHSER 1 Threonine synthase thrC PHSER -> PI + THR 1 Dihydrodipicolinate synthase dapA ASPSA + PYR -> D23PIC 1 Dihydrodipicolinate reductase dapB D23PIC + NADPH -> NADP + PIP26DX 1 Tetrahydrodipicolinate succinylase dapD PIP26DX + SUCCOA -> COA + NS2A6O 1 Succinyl diaminopimelate aminotransferase dapC NS2A6O + GLU <-> AKG + NS26DP 0 Succinyl diaminopimelate desuccinylase dapE NS26DP -> SUCC + D26PIM 1 Diaminopimelate epimerase dapF D26PIM <-> MDAP 1 Diaminopimelate decarboxylase lysA MDAP -> CO2 + LYS 1 Lysine decarboxylase 1 cadA LYS -> CO2 + CADV 1 Lysine decarboxylase 2 ldcC LYS -> CO2 + CADV 1 Homoserine transsuccinylase metA HSER + SUCCOA -> COA + OSLHSER 1 O-succinlyhomoserine lyase metB OSLHSER + CYS -> SUCC + LLCT 1 Cystathionine-β-lyase metC LLCT -> HCYS + PYR + NH3 1 Adenosyl homocysteinase (Unknown) Unknown HCYS + ADN <-> SAH 0 Cobalamin-dependent methionine synthase metH HCYS + MTHF -> MET + THF 1 Cobalamin-independent methionine synthase metE HCYS + MTHF -> MET + THF 1 S-Adenosylmethionine synthetase metK MET + ATP -> PPI + PI + SAM 1 D-Amino acid dehydrogenase dadA DALA + FAD -> FADH + PYR + NH3 1 Putrescine transaminase pat PTRC + AKG -> GABAL + GLU 0 Amino oxidase tynA PTRC -> GABAL + NH3 1 Aminobutyraldehyde dehydrogenase prr GABAL + NAD -> GABA + NADH 0 Aldehyde dehydrogenase aldH GABAL + NAD -> GABA + NADH 1 Aminobutyrate aminotransaminase 1 gabT GABA + AKG -> SUCCSAL + GLU 1 Aminobutyrate aminotransaminase 2 goaG GABA + AKG -> SUCCSAL + GLU 1 Succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase-NAD sad SUCCSAL + NAD -> SUCC + NADH 0 Succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase-NADP gabD SUCCSAL + NADP -> SUCC + NADPH 1 Asparininase I ansA ASN -> ASP + NH3 1 Asparininase II ansB ASN -> ASP + NH3 1 Aspartate ammonia-lyase aspA ASP -> FUM + NH3 1 Tryptophanase tnaA CYS -> PYR + NH3 + H2S 1 L-Cysteine desulfhydrase CYS -> PYR + NH3 + H2S 0 Glutamate decarboxylase A gadA GLU -> GABA + CO2 1 Glutamate decarboxylase B gadB GLU -> GABA + CO2 1 Glutaminase A GLN -> GLU + NH3 0 Glutaminase B GLN -> GLU + NH3 0 Proline dehydrogenase putA PRO + FAD -> FADH + GLUGSAL 1 Pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase putA GLUGSAL + NAD -> NADH + GLU 1 Serine deaminase 1 sdaA SER -> PYR + NH3 1 Serine deaminase 2 sdaB SER -> PYR + NH3 1 Trypothanase tnaA SER -> PYR + NH3 1 D-Serine deaminase dsdA DSER -> PYR + NH3 1 Threonine dehydrogenase tdh THR + NAD -> 2A3O + NADH 1 Amino ketobutyrate ligase kbl 2A3O + COA -> ACCOA + GLY 1 Threonine dehydratase catabolic tdcB THR -> OBUT + NH3 1 Threonine deaminase 1 sdaA THR -> OBUT + NH3 1 Threonine deaminase 2 sdaB THR -> OBUT + NH3 1 Tryptophanase tnaA TRP <-> INDOLE + PYR + NH3 1 Amidophosphoribosyl transferase purF PRPP + GLN -> PPI + GLU + PRAM 1 Phosphoribosylamine-glycine ligase purD PRAM + ATP + GLY <-> ADP + PI + GAR 1 Phosphoribosylglycinamide formyltransferase purN GAR + FTHF -> THF + FGAR 1 GAR transformylase T purT GAR + FOR + ATP -> ADP + PI + FGAR 1 Phosphoribosylformylglycinamide synthetase purL FGAR + ATP + GLN -> GLU + ADP + PI + FGAM 1 Phosphoribosylformylglycinamide cyclo-ligase purM FGAM + ATP -> ADP + PI + AIR 1 Phosphoribosylaminoimidazole carboxylase 1 purK AIR + CO2 + ATP <-> NCAIR + ADP + PI 1 Phosphoribosylaminoimidazole carboxylase 2 purE NCAIR <-> CAIR 1 Phosphoribosylaminoimidazole- purC CAIR + ATP + ASP <-> ADP + PI + SAICAR 1 succinocarboxamide synthetase 5′-Phosphoribosyl-4-(N-succinocarboxamide)- purB SAICAR <-> FUM + AICAR 1 5-aminoimidazole lya AICAR transformylase purH AICAR + FTHF <-> THF + PRFICA 1 IMP cyclohydrolase purH PRFICA <-> IMP 1 Adenylosuccinate synthetase purA IMP + GTP + ASP -> GDP + PI + ASUC 1 Adenylosuccinate lyase purB ASUC <-> FUM + AMP 1 IMP dehydrogenase guaB IMP + NAD -> NADH + XMP 1 GMP synthase guaA XMP + ATP + GLN -> GLU + AMP + PPI + GMP 1 GMP reductase guaC GMP + NADPH -> NADP + IMP + NH3 1 Aspartate-carbamoyltransferase pyrBI CAP + ASP -> CAASP + PI 2 Dihydroorotase pyrC CAASP <-> DOROA 1 Dihydroorotate dehydrogenase pyrD DOROA + Q <-> QH2 + OROA 1 Orotate phosphoribosyl transferase pyrE OROA + PRPP <-> PPI + OMP 1 OMP decarboxylase pyrF OMP -> CO2 + UMP 1 CTP synthetase pyrG UTP + GLN + ATP -> GLU + CTP + ADP + PI 1 Adenylate kinase adk ATP + AMP <-> 2 ADP 1 Adenylate kinase adk GTP + AMP <-> ADP + GDP 1 Adenylate kinase adk ITP + AMP <-> ADP + IDP 1 Adenylate kinase adk DAMP + ATP <-> ADP + DADP 1 Guanylate kinase gmk GMP + ATP <-> GDP + ADP 1 Deoxyguanylate kinase gmk DGMP + ATP <-> DGDP + ADP 1 Nucleoside-diphosphate kinase ndk GDP + ATP <-> GTP + ADP 1 Nucleoside-diphosphate kinase ndk UDP + ATP <-> UTP + ADP 1 Nucleoside-diphosphate kinase ndk CDP + ATP <-> CTP + ADP 1 Nucleoside-diphosphate kinase ndk DGDP + ATP <-> DGTP + ADP 1 Nucleoside-diphosphate kinase ndk DUDP + ATP <-> DUTP + ADP 1 Nucleoside-diphosphate kinase ndk DCDP + ATP <-> DCTP + ADP 1 Nucleoside-diphosphate kinase ndk DADP + ATP <-> DATP + ADP 1 Nucleoside-diphosphate kinase ndk DTDP + ATP <-> DTTP + ADP 1 AMP Nucleosidse amn AMP -> AD + R5P 1 Adenosine deaminase add ADN -> INS + NH3 1 Deoxyadenosine deaminase add DA -> DIN + NH3 1 Adenine deaminase yicP AD -> NH3 + HYXN 1 Inosine kinase gsk INS + ATP -> IMP + ADP 1 Guanosine kinase gsk GSN + ATP -> GMP + ADP 1 Adenosine kinase adk ADN + ATP -> AMP + ADP 1 Adenine phosphoryltransferase apt AD + PRPP -> PPI + AMP 1 Xanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase gpt XAN + PRPP -> XMP + PPI 1 Xanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase gpt HYXN + PRPP -> PPI + IMP 1 Hypoxanthine phosphoribosyltransferase hpt HYXN + PRPP -> PPI + IMP 1 Xanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase gpt GN + PRPP -> PPI + GMP 1 Hypoxanthine phosphoribosyltransferase hpt GN + PRPP -> PPI + GMP 1 Xanthosine phosphorylase xapA DIN + PI <-> HYXN + DR1P 1 Purine nucleotide phosphorylase deoD DIN + PI <-> HYXN + DR1P 1 Xanthosine phosphorylase xapA DA + PI <-> AD + DR1P 1 Purine nucleotide phosphorylase deoD DA + PI <-> AD + DR1P 1 Xanthosine phosphorylase xapA DG + PI <-> GN + DR1P 1 Purine nucleotide phosphorylase deoD DG + PI <-> GN + DR1P 1 Xanthosine phosphorylase xapA HYXN + R1P <-> INS + PI 1 Purine nucleotide phosphorylase deoD HYXN + R1P <-> INS + PI 1 Xanthosine phosphorylase xapA AD + R1P <-> PI + ADN 1 Purine nucleotide phosphorylase deoD AD + R1P <-> PI + ADN 1 Xanthosine phosphorylase xapA GN + R1P <-> PI + GSN 1 Purine nucleotide phosphorylase deoD GN + R1P <-> PI + GSN 1 Xanthosine phosphorylase xapA XAN + R1P <-> PI + XTSN 1 Purine nucleotide phosphorylase deoD XAN + R1P <-> PI + XTSN 1 Uridine phosphorylase udp URI + PI <-> URA + R1P 1 Thymidine (deoxyuridine) phosphorylase deoA DU + PI <-> URA + DR1P 1 Purine nucleotide phosphorylase deoD DU + PI <-> URA + DR1P 1 Thymidine (deoxyuridine) phosphorylase deoA DT + PI <-> THY + DR1P 1 Cytidylate kinase cmkA DCMP + ATP <-> ADP + DCDP 1 Cytidylate kinase cmkA CMP + ATP <-> ADP + CDP 1 Cytidylate kinase cmkB DCMP + ATP <-> ADP + DCDP 1 Cytidylate kinase cmkB CMP + ATP <-> ADP + CDP 1 Cytidylate kinase cmkA UMP + ATP <-> ADP + UDP 1 Cytidylate kinase cmkB UMP + ATP <-> ADP + UDP 1 dTMP kinase tmk DTMP + ATP <-> ADP + DTDP 1 Uridylate kinase pyrH UMP + ATP <-> UDP + ADP 1 Uridylate kinase pyrH DUMP + ATP <-> DUDP + ADP 1 Thymidine (deoxyuridine) kinase tdk DU + ATP -> DUMP + ADP 1 Uracil phosphoribosyltransferase upp URA + PRPP -> UMP + PPI 1 Cytosine deaminase codA CYTS -> URA + NH3 1 Uridine kinase udk URI + GTP -> GDP + UMP 1 Cytodine kinase udk CYTD + GTP -> GDP + CMP 1 CMP glycosylase CMP -> CYTS + R5P 0 Cytidine deaminase cdd CYTD -> URI + NH3 1 Thymidine (deoxyuridine) kinase tdk DT + ATP -> ADP + DTMP 1 dCTP deaminase dcd DCTP -> DUTP + NH3 1 Cytidine deaminase cdd DC -> NH3 + DU 1 5′-Nucleotidase ushA DUMP -> DU + PI 1 5′-Nucleotidase ushA DTMP -> DT + PI 1 5′-Nucleotidase ushA DAMP -> DA + PI 1 5′-Nucleotidase ushA DGMP -> DG + PI 1 5′-Nucleotidase ushA DCMP -> DC + PI 1 5′-Nucleotidase ushA CMP -> CYTD + PI 1 5′-Nucleotidase ushA AMP -> PI + ADN 1 5′-Nucleotidase ushA GMP -> PI + GSN 1 5′-Nucleotidase ushA IMP -> PI + INS 1 5′-Nucleotidase ushA XMP -> PI + XTSN 1 5′-Nucleotidase ushA UMP -> PI + URI 1 Ribonucleoside-diphosphate reductase nrdAB ADP + RTHIO -> DADP + OTHIO 2 Ribonucleoside-diphosphate reductase nrdAB GDP + RTHIO -> DGDP + OTHIO 2 Ribonucleoside-triphosphate reductase nrdD ATP + RTHIO -> DATP + OTHIO 1 Ribonucleoside-triphosphate reductase nrdD GTP + RTHIO -> DGTP + OTHIO 1 Ribonucleoside-diphosphate reductase nrdAB CDP + RTHIO -> DCDP + OTHIO 2 Ribonucleoside-diphosphate reductase II nrdEF CDP + RTHIO -> DCDP + OTHIO 2 Ribonucleoside-diphosphate reductase nrdAB UDP + RTHIO -> DUDP + OTHIO 2 Ribonucleoside-triphosphate reductase nrdD CTP + RTHIO -> DCTP + OTHIO 1 Ribonucleoside-triphosphate reductase nrdD UTP + RTHIO -> OTHIO + DUTP 1 dUTP pyrophosphatase dut DUTP -> PPI + DUMP 1 Thymidilate synthetase thyA DUMP + METTHF -> DHF + DTMP 1 Nucleoside triphosphatase mutT GTP -> GSN + 3 PI 1 Nucleoside triphosphatase mutT DGTP -> DG + 3 PI 1 Deoxyguanosinetriphosphate triphophohydrolase dgt DGTP -> DG + 3 PI 1 Deoxyguanosinetriphosphate triphophohydrolase dgt GTP -> GSN + 3 PI 1 Glycine cleavage system (Multi-component system) gevHTP, lpdA GLY + THF + NAD -> METTHF + NADH + CO2 + NH3 4 Formyl tetrahydrofolate deformylase purU FTHF -> FOR + THF 1 Methylene tetrahydrofolate reductase metF METTHF + NADH -> NAD + MTHF 1 Methylene THF dehydrogenase folD METTHF + NADP <-> METHF + NADPH 1 Methenyl tetrahydrofolate cyclehydrolase folD METHF <-> FTHF 1 Acetyl-CoA carboxyltransferase accABD ACCOA + ATP + CO2 <-> MALCOA + ADP + PI 3 Malonyl-CoA-ACP transacylase fabD MALCOA + ACP <-> MALACP + COA 1 Malonyl-ACP decarboxylase fadB MALACP -> ACACP + CO2 1 Acetyl-CoA-ACP transacylase fabH ACACP + COA <-> ACCOA + ACP 1 Acyltransferase pls GL3P +0.035 C140ACP +0.102 C141ACP +0.717 C160AC 0 CDP-Diacylglycerol synthetase cdsA PA + CTP <-> CDPDG + PPI 1 CDP-Diacylglycerol pyrophosphatase cdh CDPDG -> CMP + PA 1 Phosphatidylserine synthase pssA CDPDG + SER <-> CMP + PS 1 Phosphatidylserine decarboxylase psd PS -> PE + CO2 1 Phosphatidylglycerol phosphate synthase pgsA CDPDG + GL3P <-> CMP + PGP 1 Phosphatidylglycerol phosphate phosphatase A pgpA PGP -> PI + PG 0 Phosphatidylglycerol phosphate phosphatase B pgpB PGP -> PI + PG 1 Cardiolipin synthase cls 2 PG <-> CL + GL 1 Acetyl-CoA C-acetyltransferase atoB 2 ACCOA <-> COA + AACCOA 1 Isoprenyl-pyrophosphate synthesis pathway T3P1 + PYR + 2 NADPH + ATP -> IPPP + ADP + 2 NADP + 0 Isoprenyl pyrophosphate isomerase IPPP -> DMPP 0 Farnesyl pyrophosphate synthetase ispA DMPP + IPPP -> GPP + PPI 1 Geranyltranstransferase ispA GPP + IPPP -> FPP + PPI 1 Octoprenyl pyrophosphate synthase (5 reactions) ispB 5 IPPP + FPP -> OPP + 5 PPI 1 Undecaprenyl pyrophosphate synthase (8 reactions) 8 IPPP + FPP -> UDPP + 8 PPI 0 Chorismate pyruvate-lyase ubiC CHOR -> 4HBZ + PYR 1 Hydroxybenzoate octaprenyltransferase ubiA 4HBZ + OPP -> O4HBZ + PPI 1 Octaprenyl-hydroxybenzoate decarboxylase ubiD, ubiX O4HBZ -> CO2 + 2OPPP 1 2-Octaprenylphenol hydroxylase ubiB 2OPPP + O2 -> 2O6H 1 Methylation reaction 2O6H + SAM -> 2OPMP + SAH 0 2-Octaprenyl-6-methoxyphenol hydroxylase ubiH 2OPMP + O2 -> 2OPMB 1 2-Octaprenyl-6-methoxy-1,4-benzoquinone methylase ubiE 2OPMB + SAM -> 2OPMMB + SAH 0 2-Octaprenyl-3-methyl-6-methoxy-1,4- ubiF 2OPMMB + O2 -> 2OMHMB 0 benzoquinone hydroxylase 3-Dimethylubiquinone 3-methyltransferase ubiG 2OMHMB + SAM -> QH2 + SAH 1 Isochorismate synthase 1 menF CHOR -> ICHOR 1 α-Ketoglutarate decarboxylase menD AKG + TPP -> SSALTPP + CO2 1 SHCHC synthase menD ICHOR + SSALTPP -> PYR + TPP + SHCHC 1 O-Succinylbenzoate-CoA synthase menC SHCHC -> OSB 1 O-Succinylbenzoic acid-CoA ligase menE OSB + ATP + COA -> OSBCOA + AMP + PPI 1 Naphthoate synthase menB OSBCOA -> DHNA + COA 1 1,4-Dihydroxy-2-naphthoate octaprenyltransferase menA DHNA + OPP -> DMK + PPI + CO2 1 S-Adenosylmethionine-2-DMK methyltransferase menG DMK + SAM -> MK + SAH 1 Isochorismate synthase 2 entC CHOR -> ICHOR 1 Isochorismatase entB ICHOR <-> 23DHDHB + PYR 1 2,3-Dihydo-2,3-dihydroxybenzoate dehydrogenase entA 23DHDHB + NAD <-> 23DHB + NADH 1 ATP-dependent activation of 2,3-dihydroxybenzoate entE 23DHB + ATP <-> 23DHBA + PPI 1 ATP-dependent serine activating enzyme entF SER + ATP <-> SERA + PPI 1 Enterochelin synthetase entD 3 SERA +3 23DHBA -> ENTER +6 AMP 1 GTP cyclohydrolase II ribA GTP -> D6RP5P + FOR + PPI 1 Pryimidine deaminase ribD D6RP5P -> A6RP5P + NH3 1 Pyrimidine reductase ribD A6RP5P + NADPH -> A6RP5P2 + NADP 1 Pyrimidine phosphatase A6RP5P2 -> A6RP + PI 0 3,4 Dihydroxy-2-butanone-4-phosphate synthase ribB RL5P -> DB4P + FOR 1 6,7-Dimethyl-8-ribityllumazine synthase ribE DB4P + A6RP -> D8RL + PI 1 Riboflavin synthase ribH 2 D8RL -> RIBFLV + A6RP 1 Riboflavin kinase ribF RIBFLV + ATP -> FMN + ADP 1 FAD synthetase ribF FMN + ATP -> FAD + PPI 1 GTP cyclohydrolase I folE GTP -> FOR + AHTD 1 Dihydroneopterin triphosphate pyrophosphorylase ntpA AHTD -> PPI + DHPP 1 Nucleoside triphosphatase mutT AHTD -> DHP + 3 PI 1 Dihydroneopterin monophosphate dephosphorylase DHPP -> DHP + PI 0 Dihydroneopterin aldolase folB DHP -> AHHMP + GLAL 1 6-Hydroxymethyl-7,8 dihydropterin pyrophosphokinase folK AHHMP + ATP -> AMP + AHHMD 1 Aminodeoxychorismate synthase pabAB CHOR + GLN -> ADCHOR + GLU 2 Aminodeoxychorismate lyase pabC ADCHOR -> PYR + PABA 1 Dihydropteroate synthase folP PABA + AHHMD -> PPI + DHPT 1 Dihydrofolate synthetase folC DHPT + ATP + GLU -> ADP + PI + DHF 1 Dihydrofolate reductase folA DHF + NADPH -> NADP + THF 1 Ketopentoate hydroxymethyl transferase panB OIVAL + METTHF -> AKP + THF 1 Ketopantoate reductase panE AKP + NADPH -> NADP + PANT 0 Acetohyoxyacid isomeroreductase ilvC AKP + NADPH -> NADP + PANT 1 Aspartate decarboxylase panD ASP -> CO2 + bALA 1 Pantoate-β-alanine ligase panC PANT + bALA + ATP -> AMP + PPI + PNTO 1 Pantothenate kinase coaA PNTO + ATP -> ADP + 4PPNTO 1 Phosphopantothenate-cysteine ligase 4PPNTO + CTP + CYS -> CMP + PPI + 4PPNCYS 0 Phosphopantothenate-cysteine decarboxylase 4PPNCYS -> CO2 + 4PPNTE 0 Phospho-pantethiene adenylyltransferase 4PPNTE + ATP -> PPI + DPCOA 0 DephosphoCoA kinase DPCOA + ATP -> ADP + COA 0 ACP Synthase acpS COA -> PAP + ACP 1 Aspartate oxidase nadB ASP + FAD -> FADH + ISUCC 1 Quinolate synthase nadA ISUCC + T3P2 -> PI + QA 1 Quinolate phosphoribosyl transferase nadC QA + PRPP -> NAMN + CO2 + PPI 1 NAMN adenylyl transferase nadD NAMN + ATP -> PPI + NAAD 0 NAMN adenylyl transferase nadD NMN + ATP -> NAD + PPI 0 Deamido-NAD ammonia ligase nadE NAAD + ATP + NH3 -> NAD + AMP + PPI 1 NAD kinase nadFG NAD + ATP -> NADP + ADP 0 NADP phosphatase NADP -> NAD + PI 0 DNA ligase lig NAD -> NMN + AMP 1 NMN amidohydrolase pncC NMN -> NAMN + NH3 0 NMN glycohydrolase (cytoplasmic) NMN -> R5P + NAm 0 NAm amidohydrolase pncA NAm -> NAC + NH3 0 NAPRTase pncB NAC + PRPP + ATP -> NAMN + PPI + PI + ADP 1 NAD pyrophosphatase pnuE NADxt -> NMNxt + AMPxt 0 NMN permease pnuC NMNxt -> NMN 1 NMN glycohydrolase (membrane bound) NMNxt -> R5P + NAm 0 Nicotinic acid uptake NACxt -> NAC 0 GSA synthetase hemM GLU + ATP -> GTRNA + AMP + PPI 1 Glutamyl-tRNA synthetase gltX GLU + ATP -> GTRNA + AMP + PPI 1 Glutamyl-tRNA reductase hemA GTRNA + NADPH -> GSA + NADP 1 Glutamate-1-semialdehyde aminotransferase hemL GSA -> ALAV 1 Porphobilinogen synthase hemB 8 ALAV -> 4 PBG 1 Hydroxymethylbilane synthase hemC 4 PBG -> HMB + 4 NH3 1 Uroporphyrinogen III synthase hemD HMB -> UPRG 1 Uroporphyrin-III C-methyltransferase 1 hemX SAM + UPRG -> SAH + PC2 1 Uroporphyrin-III C-methyltransferase 2 cysG SAM + UPRG -> SAM + PC2 1 1,3-Dimethyluroporphyrinogen III dehydrogenase cysG PC2 + NAD -> NADH + SHCL 1 Siroheme ferrochelatase cysG SHCL -> SHEME 1 Uroporphyrinogen decarboxylase hemE UPRG -> 4 CO2 + CPP 1 Coproporphyrinogen oxidase, aerobic hemF O2 + CPP -> 2 CO2 + PPHG 2 Protoporphyrinogen oxidase hemG O2 + PPHG -> PPIX 2 Ferrochelatase hemH PPIX -> PTH 1 Heme O synthase cyoE PTH + FPP -> HO + PPI 1 8-Amino-7-oxononanoate synthase bioF ALA + CHCOA <-> CO2 + COA + AONA 1 Adenosylmethionine-8-amino-7-oxononanoate bioA SAM + AONA <-> SAMOB + DANNA 1 aminotransferase Dethiobiotin synthase bioD CO2 + DANNA + ATP <-> DTB + PI + ADP 1 Biotin synthase bioB DTB + CYS <-> BT 1 Glutamate-cysteine ligase gshA CYS + GLU + ATP -> GC + PI + ADP 1 Glutathione synthase gshB GLY + GC + ATP -> RGT + PI + ADP 1 Glutathione reductase gor NADPH + OGT <-> NADP + RGT 1 thiC protein thiC AIR -> AHM 1 HMP kinase thiN AHM + ATP -> AHMP + ADP 0 HMP-phosphate kinase thiD AHMP + ATP -> AHMPP + ADP 0 Hypothetical T3P1 + PYR -> DTP 0 thiG protein thiG DTP + TYR + CYS -> THZ + HBA + CO2 1 thiE protein thiE DTP + TYR + CYS -> THZ + HBA + CO2 1 thiF protein thiF DTP + TYR + CYS -> THZ + HBA + CO2 1 thiH protein thiH DTP + TYR + CYS -> THZ + HBA + CO2 1 THZ kinase thiM THZ + ATP -> THZP + ADP 0 Thiamin phosphate synthase thiB THZP + AHMPP -> THMP + PPI 0 Thiamin kinase thiK THMP + ADP <-> THIAMIN + ATP 0 Thiamin phosphate kinase thiL THMP + ATP <-> TPP + ADP 0 Erythrose 4-phosphate dehydrogenase epd E4P + NAD <-> ER4P + NADH 1 Erythronate-4-phosphate dehydrogenase pdxB ER4P + NAD <-> OHB + NADH 1 Hypothetical transaminase/phosphoserine transaminase serC OHB + GLU <-> PHT + AKG 1 Pyridoxal-phosphate biosynthetic proteins pdxJ-pdxA pdxAJ PHT + DX5P -> P5P + CO2 2 Pyridoxine 5′-phosphate oxidase pdxH P5P + O2 <-> PL5P + H2O2 1 Threonine synthase thrC PHT -> 4HLT + PI 1 Hypothetical Enzyme 4HLT -> PYRDX 0 Pyridoxine kinase pdxK PYRDX + ATP -> P5P + ADP 1 Hypothetical Enzyme P5P -> PYRDX + PI 0 Hypothetical Enzyme PL5P -> PL + PI 0 Pyridoxine kinase pdxK PL + ATP -> PL5P + ADP 1 Pyridoxine 5′-phosphate oxidase pdxH PYRDX + O2 <-> PL + H2O2 1 Pyridoxine 5′-phosphate oxidase pdxH PL + O2 + NH3 <-> PDLA + H2O2 1 Pyridoxine kinase pdxK PDLA + ATP -> PDLA5P + ADP 1 Hypothetical Enzyme PDLA5P -> PDLA + PI 0 Pyridoxine 5′-phosphate oxidase pdxH PDLA5P + O2 -> PL5P + H202 + NH3 1 Serine hydroxymethyltransferase (serine methylase) glyA PL5P + GLU -> PDLA5P + AKG 1 Serine hydroxymethyltransferase (serine methylase) glyA PL5P + ALA -> PDLA5P + PYR 1 Glutamine fructose-6-phosphate Transaminase glmS F6P + GLN -> GLU + GA6P 1 Phosphoglucosamine mutase glmM GA6P <-> GA1P 0 N-Acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate-uridyltransferase glmU UTP + GA1P + ACCOA -> UDPNAG + PPI + COA 1 UDP-N-acetylglucosamine acyltransferase lpxA C140ACP + UDPNAG -> ACP + UDPG2AA 1 UDP-3-O-acyl-N-acetylglucosamine deacetylase lpxC UDPG2AA -> UDPG2A + AC 1 UDP-3-O-(3-hydroxymyristoyl)glucosamine- lpxD UDPG2A + C140ACP -> ACP + UDPG23A 1 actyltransferase UDP-sugar hydrolase ushA UDPG23A -> UMP + LIPX 1 Lipid A disaccharide synthase lpxB LIPX + UDPG23A -> UDP + DISAC1P 1 Tetraacyldisaccharide 4′ kinase DISAC1P + ATP -> ADP + LIPIV 0 3-Deoxy-D-manno-octulosonic-acid transferase kdtA LIPIV + CMPKDO -> KDOLIPIV + CMP 1 (KDO transferase) 3-Deoxy-D-manno-octulosonic-acid transferase kdtA KDOLIPIV + CMPKDO -> K2LIPIV + CMP 1 (KDO transferase) Endotoxin synthase htrB, msbB K2LIPIV + C140ACP + C120ACP -> LIPA +2 ACP 2 3-Deoxy-D-manno-octulosonic-acid 8-phosphate kdsA PEP + A5P -> KDOP + PI 1 synthase 3-Deoxy-D-manno-octulosonic-acid 8-phosphate KDOP -> KDO + PI 0 phosphatase CMP-2-keto-3-deoxyoctonate synthesis kdsB KDO + CTP -> PPI + CMPKDO 1 ADP-L-glycero-D-mannoheptose-6-epimerase lpcA, rfaED S7P + ATP -> ADPHEP + PPI 1 UDP glucose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase galU, galF G1P + UTP -> PPI + UDPG 2 Ethanolamine phosphotransferase PE + CMP <-> CDPETN + DGR 0 Phosphatidate phosphatase PA -> PI + DGR 0 Diacylglycerol kinase dgkA DGR + ATP -> ADP + PA 1 LPS Synthesis —truncated version of LPS (ref nerd) rjaLJIGFC LIPA +3 ADPHEP +2 UDPG +2 CDPETN + 3 CMPKDO -> 6 UDP-N-acetylglucosamine-enolpyruvate transferase murA UDPNAG + PEP -> UDPNAGEP + PI 1 UDP-N-acetylglucosamine-enolpyruvate dehydrogenase murB UDPNAGEP + NADPH -> UDPNAM + NADP 1 UDP-N-acetylmuramate-alanine ligase murC UDPNAM + ALA + ATP -> ADP + PI + UDPNAMA 1 UDP-N-acetylmuramoylalanine-D-glutamate ligase murD UDPNAMA + DGLU + ATP -> UDPNAMAG + ADP + PI 1 UDP-N-acetylmuramoylalanyl-D-glutamate murE UDPNAMAG + ATP + MDAP -> UNAGD + ADP + PI 1 2,6-diaminopimelate lig D-Alanine-D-alanine adding enzyme murF UNAGD + ATP + AA -> UNAGDA + ADP + PI 1 Glutamate racemase murI GLU <-> DGLU 1 D-ala:D-ala ligases ddlAB 2 DALA <-> AA 2 Phospho-N-acetylmuramoylpentapeptide transferase mraY UNAGDA -> UMP + PI + UNPTDO 1 N-Acetylglucosaminyl transferase murG UNPTDO + UDPNAG -> UDP + PEPTIDO 1 Arabinose (low affinity) araE ARABxt + HEXT <-> ARAB 1 Arabinose (high affinity) araFGH ARABxt + ATP -> ARAB + ADP + PI 3 Dihydroxyacetone DHAxt + PEP -> T3P2 + PYR 0 Fructose fruABF FRUxt + PEP -> F1P + PYR 2 Fucose fucP FUCxt + HEXT <-> FUC 1 Galacitol gatABC GLTLxt + PEP -> GLTL1P + PYR 3 Galactose (low affinity) galP GLACxt + HEXT -> GLAC 1 Galactose (low affinity) galP GLCxt + HEXT -> GLC 1 Galactose (high affinity) mglABC GLACxt + ATP -> GLAC + ADP + PI 3 Glucitol srlA1A2B GLTxt + PEP -> GLT6P + PYR 3 Gluconate gntST GLCNxt + ATP -> GLCN + ADP + PI 1 Glucose ptsG, crr GLCxt + PEP -> G6P + PYR 2 Glycerol glpF GLxt <-> GL 1 Lactose lacY LCTSxt + HEXT <-> LCTS 1 Maltose malX, crr, malE MLTxt + PEP -> MLT6P + PYR 7 Mannitol mtlA, cmtAB MNTxt + PEP -> MNT6P + PYR 3 Mannose manXYZ, ptsPA MANxt + PEP -> MAN1P + PYR 6 Melibiose melB MELIxt + HEXT -> MELI 1 N-Acetylglucosamine nagE, ptsN NAG + PEP -> NAGP + PYR 2 Rhamnose rhaT RMNxt + ATP -> RMN + ADP + PI 1 Ribose rbsABCD, xylH RIBxt + ATP -> RIB + ADP + PI 5 Sucrose scr SUCxt + PEP -> SUC6P + PYR 0 Trehalose treAB TRExt + PEP -> TRE6P + PYR 2 Xylose (low affinity) xylE XYLxt + HEXT -> XYL 1 Xylose (high affinity) xylFG, rbsB XYLxt + ATP -> XYL + ADP+ PI 3 Alanine cycA ALAxt + ATP -> ALA + ADP + PI 1 Arginine artPMQJI, arg ARGxt + ATP -> ARG + ADP + PI 9 Asparagine (low Affinity) ASNxt + HEXT <-> ASN 0 Asparagine (high Affinity) ASNxt + ATP -> ASN + ADP + PI 0 Aspartate gltP ASPxt + HEXT -> ASP 1 Aspartate gltJKL ASPxt + ATP -> ASP + ADP + PI 3 Branched chain amino acid transport brnQ BCAAxt + HEXT <-> BCAA 1 Cysteine not identified CYSxt + ATP -> CYS + ADP + PI 0 D-Alanine cycA DALAxt + ATP -> DALA + ADP + PI 1 D-Alanine glycine permease cycA DALAxt + HEXT <-> DALA 1 D-Alanine glycine permease cycA DSERxt + HEXT <-> DSER 1 D-Alanine glycine permease cycA GLYxt + HEXT <-> GLY 1 Diaminopimelic acid MDAPxt + ATP -> MDAP + ADP + PI 0 γ-Aminobutyrate transport gabP GABAxt + ATP -> GABA + ADP + PI 1 Glutamate gltP GLUxt + HEXT <-> GLU 1 Glutamate gltS GLUxt + HEXT <-> GLU 1 Glutamate gltJKL GLUxt + ATP -> GLU + ADP + PI 3 Glutamine glnHPQ GLNxt + ATP -> GLN + ADP + PI 3 Glycine cycA, proVWX GLYxt + ATP -> GLY + ADP + PI 4 Histidine hisJMPQ HISxt + ATP -> HIS + ADP + PI 4 Isoleucine livJ ILExt + ATP -> ILE + ADP + PI 1 Leucine livHKM/livFGJ LEUxt + ATP -> LEU + ADP + PI 6 Lysine lysP LYSxt + HEXT <-> LYS 1 Lysine argT, hisMPQ LYSxt + ATP -> LYS + ADP + PI 4 Lysine/Cadaverine cadB LYSxt + ATP -> LYS + ADP + PI 1 Methionine metD METxt + ATP -> MET + ADP + PI 0 Ornithine argT, hisMPQ ORNxt + ATP -> ORN + ADP + PI 4 Phenlyalanine aroP/mtr/pheP PHExt + HEXT <-> PHE 3 Proline putP, proPWX PROxt + HEXT <-> PRO 4 Proline cycA, proVW PROxt + ATP -> PRO + ADP + PI 4 Putrescine potEFIIIG PTRCxt + ATP -> PTRC + ADP + PI 5 Serine sdaC SERxt + HEXT <-> SER 1 Serine cycA SERxt + ATP -> SER + ADP + PI 1 Spermidine & putrescine potABCD SPMDxt + ATP -> SPMD + ADP + PI 4 Spermidine & putrescine potABCD PTRCxt + ATP -> PTRC + ADP + PI 4 Threonine livJ THRxt + ATP -> THR + ADP + PI 1 Threonine tdcC THRxt + HEXT <-> THR 1 Tryptophan tnaB TRPxt + HEXT <-> TRP 1 Tyrosine tyrP TYRxt + HEXT <-> TYR 1 Valine livJ VALxt + ATP -> VAL + ADP + PI 1 Dipeptide dppABCDF DIPEPxt + ATP -> DIPEP + ADP + PI 5 Oligopeptide oppABCDF OPEPxt + ATP -> OPEP + ADP + PI 5 Peptide sapABD PEPTxt + ATP -> PEPT + ADP + PI 3 Uracil uraA URAxt + HEXT -> URA 1 Nicotinamide mononucleotide transporter pnuC NMNxt + HEXT -> + NMN 1 Cytosine codB CYTSxt + HEXT -> CYTS 1 Adenine purB ADxt + HEXT -> AD 1 Guanine gpt, hpt GNxt <-> GN 2 Hypoxanthine gpt, hpt HYXNxt <-> HYXN 2 Xanthosine xapB XTSNxt <-> XTSN 1 Xanthine gpt XANxt <-> XAN 1 G-system nupG ADNxt + HEXT -> ADN 1 G-system nupG GSNxt + HEXT -> GSN 1 G-system nupG URIxt + HEXT -> URI 1 G-system nupG CYTDxt + HEXT -> CYTD 1 G-system (transports all nucleosides) nupG INSxt + HEXT -> INS 1 G-system nupG XTSNxt + HEXT -> XTSN 1 G-system nupG DTxt + HEXT -> DT 1 G-system nupG DINxt + HEXT -> DIN 1 G-system nupG DGxt + HEXT -> DG 1 G-system nupG DAxt + HEXT -> DA 1 G-system nupG DCxt + HEXT -> DC 1 G-system nupG DUxt + HEXT -> DU 1 C-system nupC ADNxt + HEXT -> ADN 1 C-system nupC URIxt + HEXT -> URI 1 C-system nupC CYTDxt + HEXT -> CYTD 1 C-system nupC DTxt + HEXT -> DT 1 C-system nupC DAxt + HEXT -> DA 1 C-system nupC DCxt + HEXT -> DC 1 C-system nupC DUxt + HEXT -> DU 1 Nucleosides and deoxynucleoside tsx ADNxt + HEXT -> ADN 1 Nucleosides and deoxynucleoside tsx GSNxt + HEXT -> GSN 1 Nucleosides and deoxynucleoside tsx URIxt + HEXT -> URI 1 Nucleosides and deoxynucleoside tsx CYTDxt + HEXT -> CYTD 1 Nucleosides and deoxynucleoside tsx INSxt + HEXT -> INS 1 Nucleosides and deoxynucleoside tsx XTSNxt + HEXT -> XTSN 1 Nucleosides and deoxynucleoside tsx DTxt + HEXT -> DT 1 Nucleosides and deoxynucleoside tsx DINxt + HEXT -> DIN 1 Nucleosides and deoxynucleoside tsx DGxt + HEXT -> DG 1 Nucleosides and deoxynucleoside tsx DAxt + HEXT -> DA 1 Nucleosides and deoxynucleoside tsx DCxt + HEXT -> DC 1 Nucleosides and deoxynucleoside tsx DUxt + HEXT -> DU 1 Acetate transport ACxt + HEXT <-> AC 0 Lactate transport LACxt + HEXT <-> LAC 0 L-Lactate lldP LLACxt + HEXT <-> LLAC 1 Formate transport focA FORxt <-> FOR 1 Ethanol transport ETHxt + HEXT <-> ETH 0 Succinate transport dcuAB SUCCxt + HEXT <-> SUCC 2 Pyruvate transport PYRxt + HEXT <-> PYR 0 Ammonia transport amtB NH3xt + HEXT <-> NH3 1 Potassium transport kdpABC Kxt + ATP -> K + ADP + PI 3 Potassium transport trkAEHG Kxt + HEXT <-> K 3 Sulfate transport cysPTUWAZ, s SLFxt + ATP -> SLF + ADP + PI 7 Phosphate transport pstABCS PIxt + ATP -> ADP + 2 PI 4 Phosphate transport pitAB PIxt + HEXT <-> PI 2 Glycerol-3-phosphate glpT, ugpABCE GL3Pxt + PI -> GL3P 5 Dicarboxylates dcuAB, dctA SUCCxt + HEXT <-> SUCC 3 Dicarboxylates dcuAB, dctA FUMxt + HEXT <-> FUM 3 Dicarboxylates dcuAB, dctA MALxt + HEXT <-> MAL 3 Dicarboxylates dcuAB, dctA ASPxt + HEXT <-> ASP 3 Fatty acid transport fadL C140xt -> C140 1 Fatty acid transport fadL C160xt -> C160 1 Fatty acid transport fadL C180xt -> C180 1 α-Ketoglutarate kgtP AKGxt + HEXT <-> AKG 1 Na/H antiporter nhaABC NAxt + <-> NA + HEXT 2 Na/H antiporter chaABC NAxt + <-> NA + HEXT 3 Pantothenate panF PNTOxt + HEXT <-> PNTO 1 Sialic acid permease nanT SLAxt + ATP -> SLA + ADP + PI 1 Oxygen transport O2xt <-> O2 0 Carbon dioxide transport CO2xt <-> CO2 0 Urea transport UREAxt +2 HEXT <-> UREA 0 ATP drain flux for constant maintanence requirements ATP -> ADP + PI 0 Glyceraldehyde transport gufP GLALxt <-> GLAL 0 Acetaldehyde transport ACALxt <-> ACAL 0

TABLE 2 Comparison of the predicted mutant growth characteristics from the gene deletion study to published experimental results with single and double mutants. Glucose Glycerol Succinate Acetate (in vivo/ (in vivo/ (in vivo/ (in vivo/ Gene in silico) in silico) in silico) in silico) aceEF −/+ aceA −/− aceB −/− ackA +/+ acs +/+ acn −/− −/− −/− −/− cyd +/+ cyo +/+ eno −/+ −/+ −/− −/− fba −/+ fbp +/+ −/− −/− −/− gap −/− −/− −/− −/− gltA −/− −/− −/− −/− gnd +/+ idh −/− −/− −/− −/− ndh +/+ +/+ nuo +/+ +/+ pfk −/+ pgi +/+ +/+ pgk −/− −/− −/− −/− pgl +/+ pntAB +/+ +/+ +/+ +/+ glk +/+ ppc ±/+ −/+ +/+ +/+ pta +/+ pts +/+ pyk +/+ rpi −/− −/− −/− −/− sdhABCD +/+ tpi −/+ −/− −/− −/− unc +/+ −/− −/− zwf +/+ sucAD +/+ zwf, pnt +/+ pck, mez −/− −/− pck, pps −/− −/− pgi, zwf −/− pgi, gnd −/− pta, acs −/− tktA, tktB −/− Results are scored as + or − meaning growth or no growth determined from in vivo/in silico data. In 73 of 80 cases the in silico behavior is the same as the experimentally observed behavior. 

1-23. (canceled)
 24. A memory storing data for access by a software program being executed by at least one processor, comprising: a genome specific stoichiometric matrix stored in said memory, said genome specific stoichiometric matrix storing substrates, products, and stoichiometry for a plurality of metabolic reactions specific to an organism, wherein at least one of said metabolic reactions corresponds to a potential function of a candidate protein that is encoded by an open reading frame of the organism's genome and for which a function is not known; and instructions for causing the at least one processor to add or remove constraints on fluxes through the plurality of metabolic reactions so as to identify a gene coding for the candidate protein.
 25. The memory of claim 24, wherein the potential function is based on homology of the open reading frame to a nucleotide encoding a protein of known function in another organism.
 26. The memory of claim 24, wherein the potential function is based on homology of an amino acid sequence of the candidate protein to an amino acid sequence of a protein of known function in another organism.
 27. The memory of claim 24, wherein said memory is selected from the group consisting of: a hard disk, optical memory, Random Access Memory, Read Only Memory and Flash Memory.
 28. The memory of claim 24, wherein said organism is Escherichia coli. 